About the Authors

BILLIE H. FRAZIER, Ph.D., Certified Family Life Educator, earned degrees from Sam Houston State University, Texas Woman's University, and Florida State University in human development and family science. She held positions in academic departments at William and Mary, Auburn University, The University of Houston, and Sam Houston State University.

An Associate Professor and Human Development Specialist with the Maryland Cooperative Extension Service, she writes educational publications for parents and collaborates with several state agencies for prevention type programs for high at-risk groups. Dr. Frazier is a board member of P.A.C.A., People Against Child Abuse (Maryland Chapter of the National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse), and a member of the National Advisory Panel for Communities for Child Safety. Billie is an advocate for children and is working with several independent researchers on the topic of sibling abuse.

KAREN C. MORGAN, Ph.D., earned degrees from Albion College in Michigan in psychology, Iowa State in child development, and Ohio State in family relations and human development. Dr. Morgan is an Assistant Professor and Human Development Specialist for Rutgers Cooperative Extension of New Jersey. Her previous work experiences include academic and business positions.

Dr. Morgan provides statewide leadership for several parent education efforts including a weekly news release program and services to military and county sites. She also collaborates with the National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse at both the national and state levels.

KATHLEEN C. HAYES, M.S., Certified Home Economist, conducted the database searches on emotional abuse in June 1992 and helped edit the publication. Ms. Hayes coordinates the activities and programs of the Technology Transfer Information Center at the National Agricultural Library. Her additional responsibilities include chairing the Federal Laboratory Consortium's Information Systems Committee and editing the Technology Transfer Society's Newsletter, T'Squared.

The National Agricultural Library supported the research of Dr. Frazier and Dr. Morgan and funded the printing of this publication.

Introduction

Readers of this bibliography will discover that the literature contains many terms for emotional abuse. The terms are used interchangeably in the literature and include emotional abuse, emotional neglect, psychological maltreatment, psychological abuse, verbal abuse, mental injury, and emotional assault. Distinctions between the terms cannot be made in a clear and useful way, because the definitions vary according to the source of information.

Dr. Frazier selected the term emotional abuse for this bibliography and defines it as maltreatment that results in impaired growth and development. Emotional abuse includes name calling, rejection, intimidation; and withholding nurturance, intimacy, affection and acceptance. Emotional abuse frequently takes the form of verbal assault and includes belittling, insulting, and criticizing. When these destructive behaviors are used consistently over a period of time, they are considered emotional abuse. These behaviors undermine the child's sense of well being, self image, and self esteem.

There is a growing consensus among professionals that emotional maltreatment appears to be an integral part of all forms of abuse. Because of its pervasive nature, some believe it is as harmful as, or more harmful than, other forms of abuse. Evidence indicates that emotional maltreatment is associated with the development of severe forms of behavior disorders and developmental delays in children. The incidence and impact of emotional abuse strongly suggest that it be designated a national priority. Prevention, intervention, treatment, research, and public policy issues should be placed on the national agenda.

Selected Resources For Researchers and Educators: Books

This report of the twenty-third Ross Roundtable on Critical Approaches to Common Pediatric Problems conducted in collaboration with the Ambulatory Pediatric Association includes this article by Murray Strauss, an internationally recognized authority on family violence. The Strauss article reports a study on impacts of children witnessing violence in the domestic scene.

Strauss reports findings from the National Family Violence Surveys conducted in 1975 and 1985. Two facts are highlighted in the introduction. First, each year, more than 10 million American children witness a physical assault between their parents. In two thirds of the cases, this is repeated violence between the parents. The childhood prevalence of witnessing violence is at least triple these annual rates. Secondly, witnessing violence between parents is highly stressful and is a risk factor for a variety of psychosocial problems, including physical and mental health problems, drinking and drug use, marital conflict and violence, physical abuse of children, and assaults and other crimes outside the family. The reported findings from the 1985 Survey are consistent with clinical studies, experimental analog studies, and smaller-scale epidemiologic studies. This article contains only the results from the 1985 National Family Violence Survey (N=6,002), but the findings of the two surveys are parallel. Moreover, the reported findings are also consistent with clinical studies, experimental analog studies, and smaller-scale epidemiologic studies.

Although this paper demonstrated a link between witnessing marital violence and various psychosocial problems, Strauss did not deal with the issue of what processes produce the link. Instead, he cited the following processes from detailed studies by Jaffe and Kenning: (1) Modeling of coercion and violence that is later acted out when the child is an adult; (2) Reduced chance to observe and learn negotiation and social competence in general; (3) Anxiety, terror, and helplessness from observing parents attack each other that may have an effect analogous to posttraumatic stress syndrome; (4) Dulled affect and empathy from repeated exposure to cruelty and violence against loved ones; (5) Impaired ability to nurture and care for a child by parents who
are physically attacked by their partner.

Whatever the intervening processes, Strauss' findings indicate that witnessing parental violence has a wider variety of adverse outcomes than has been reported previously. He concludes by stating, "It seems reasonable to conclude that being a witness to violence between parents puts a child at risk for a number of serious mental health and other problems, and that this applies to children of all socioeconomic levels and regardless of whether a child has also been attacked by the parents."

KEYWORDS: Effects, Impacts, Witnessing Violence, Domestic Violence

The Family Curse: Emotional Child Abuse. Joel Covitz. Boston, MA: Sigo Press, 1986.

The author examines the causes and effects of emotional child abuse. Types of abuse considered include parents who are promiscuous, tyrannical, incestuous, smothering, abandoning, overprotective, underprotective, overly critical, jealous, and immature, and parents who only love their children conditionally. Other types include parents who set unhealthy examples with regard to money, sex, discipline, and death, as well as parents who are unable to celebrate their children's lives.

The author observes that most dysfunctional parenting is unintentional and that psychological child abuse frequently results from incompetent parents who had less than ideal role models as children. The author suggests that parents replace "family curses" with flexible, supportive, and celebrational exchanges with their children.

KEYWORDS: Causes, Effects

My Father's Child: Help and Healing for the Victims of Emotional, Sexual, and Physical Abuse. Lynda D. Elliott and Vicki L. Tanner. Brentwood, TN: Wolgemuth & Hyatt, Publishers, Inc., 1989.

This easy-to-read book is divided into four sections: The Hurt of the Past, Letting Go of the Past, Beginning Again, and a Leader's Guidebook. Eight appendices provide practical support group information, guidelines and exercises. Answers are given to specific questions concerning reporting suspected abuse. A strong religious orientation is provided.

The viewpoint of the authors is that victims can derive hope from the pain of the past through a personal relationship with God. The book is a result of the work conducted with persons who experienced healing from the effects of abuse. It is written for persons struggling with pain, as well as for clergy, family members, and others who need to understand.

KEYWORD: Religion

Preventing Physical and Emotional Abuse of Children. David A. Wolfe. New York, New York: The Guilford Press, 1991.

The author's research interests focus primarily on adjustment disorders among children raised in violent and abusive families, and the treatment and prevention of child abuse. The realistic, practical program described in this book is designed to enhance the child's development by recognizing early signs of potential abuse and intervening to maximize positive interactions in the family.

The prevention program can be achieved best by maximizing children's developmental abilities through child-centered stimulation activities involving the parents. This strategy is based on research findings with abused children which indicate that the effects of abuse are cumulative over time, and that they create a domino effect on subsequent development.

The author states that the less visible and perhaps more damaging phenomenon of psychological abuse has only recently received attention from the public and professionals. There is a growing consensus among professionals that emotional abuse is more prevalent than other forms of maltreatment, and that its impact is more destructive on development.

KEYWORD: Prevention

The Psychologically Battered Child: Strategies for Identification, Assessment, and Intervention. James Garbarino, Edna Guttmann, and Janis Wilson Seeley. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1988.

In this classic book, the authors define psychological maltreatment and link it to prevention and treatment. The book is designed to help the professional, who is caught in the bind of knowing that psychological maltreatment and harm are the core issues in most child protective work, who also feels that the basis for proceeding with action is weak and obscure. The book begins with a look at issues that distinguish psychological abuse from other forms of child maltreatment. It offers a definition of maltreatment that includes terrorizing, isolating, ignoring, rejecting and corrupting. Case studies and illustrations are provided for these categories.

The emphasis is on parent-child relationships, although some information is provided on out-of- home situations. Public policy issues are discussed.

KEYWORDS: Identification, Assessment, Intervention, Policy, Case Studies

Shall the Circle Be Unbroken?: Helping the Emotionally Maltreated Child. Marilyn Franzen Holm.
Longmont, CO: Bookmakers Guild, Inc., 1986.

The author states that "the most deadly sin is the mutilation of a child's spirit, for such mutilation undercuts the life principle of trust." The effects of one individual's emotional abuse are passed down to new victims.

Mental health professionals have had a tendency to avoid the topic of emotional abuse because it is difficult to objectively decide what parental behavior constitutes abuse, except for visible, extreme cases. What abuse is to one person is "loving discipline" to another. Neglect that kills a child is seen by some groups as merely due to differences in culture or lifestyle .

This book explores problems of defining emotional abuse and describes the overwhelming costs to individual children and society as a whole. The author suggests changes to help break the vicious circle that goes through generation after generation of unhappy parents and children. She observes that, for each of us, the family of our childhood is the source of unconscious design for later life.

Sections on raising emotionally healthy children and helping adults feel good about themselves are included. The book is based on the premise that the survival of humanity depends less on missiles and treaties than on the way our children are nurtured.

KEYWORD: Definition

Sibling Abuse: Hidden Physical, Emotional, and Sexual Trauma. Vernon R. Wiehe. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990.

Wiehe defines sibling abuse as the physical, emotional, or sexual abuse of one sibling by another. It is a form of child abuse that has remained hidden until recently. The author is the first to systematically study sibling abuse in the lives of victims. The book contains descriptions of the devastating impact the abuse had on victims' lives and offers suggestions of what parents could have done to prevent it.

The author identifies criteria for evaluating sibling interactions and provides practical guidelines for preventing abusive or potentially abusive behaviors. KEYWORD: Sibling Abuse

Selected Resources For Researchers and Educators: Journal Articles

"Abusive Families and Character Formation." James B. McCarthy. American Journal of Psychoanalysis. June 1990; 50(2): 181-186.

The author offered the notion that abusive parents tend to be undifferentiated partners who compete with each other and with their children for attention and nurturance. He states that under sufficient stress, abusive parents attack the child who fails to gratify their needs, thereby giving vent to the longstanding frustrations and feelings of being threatened by the child's individuation and competency. McCarthy hypothesizes that achieving individuation in abusive families entails overcoming the internalized abusive relationships and relinquishing the unconscious wish to be transformed from the abused into the abuser.

KEYWORDS: Definition, Psychology

"Abusive Families: The Psychological Context." Neil Frude. Educational Psychology in Practice. October 1988; 4(3): 128-130.

Ineffective disciplinary actions may escalate to more dangerous and abusive parental behavior. One of the risk factors associated with abusive parenting is a parent-child relationship characterized by a lack of emotional warmth, including few positive interactions and frequent negative ones. Many abusive parents also seem to have a general aversion to a wide range of normal child behaviors and are characterized as "blame-oriented." Parents are more likely to abuse children who behave in more disturbed ways, have developmental difficulties, or are more aggressive. Interventions designed to enhance the quality of the parent-child relationship could assist in preventing abuse.

KEYWORDS: Risk Factors, Intervention

"Caring for Abused Preschoolers." Anna C. Salter, Curtis M. Richardson, Steven W. Kairys. Child Welfare. 1985; 64(4): 343-356.

The authors reviewed the effects of physical and emotional abuse on young children's cognition, affect and behavior and offer useful intervention guidelines to those working with abused preschoolers. These concrete suggestions can be utilized to help counteract the effects of abuse, and build preschoolers' language and gross motor skills.

KEYWORDS: Effects, Intervention, Preschool

"Child Abuse: A Study of the Child's Perspective." Philip G. Ney, Christine Moore, John McPhee, and Penelope Trought. Child Abuse & Neglect. 1986; 10(4): 511-518.

Children often perceive their environment differently from adults. For this reason, the authors obtained information directly from children in order to ascertain the impact of abuse. Fifty-seven children in a psychiatric unit (5-12 years old and with no conditions severe enough to restrict the quality of an interview) participated in structured interviews and revealed their perceptions of abuse, views of their family, feelings about themselves, and thoughts about the world in general. Mothers and the unit staff also were asked to rate the extent to which five types of mistreatment occurred: physical abuse, verbal abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse. Frequency and severity were scored on visual analogue scales.

There was significant agreement between parent and child reports on physical abuse and sexual abuse, but this was not the case for emotional neglect or verbal abuse. Verbal abuse was associated significantly with children's feelings of wanting to hurt themselves or others. The relationship of a child's self blame to the extent of verbal abuse showed that children blamed themselves when such abuse was mild, blamed someone else when it was moderate, but strongly blamed themselves when the criticism and humiliation were severe. The same pattern held for sexual abuse. In contrast, children accepted responsibility for mild, but not severe physical abuse. The relationships of emotional neglect and physical neglect to self blame were less clear and less consistent.

The authors speculate that, if their results hold true that verbal abuse is more likely than other forms of abuse to affect children's view of themselves and the world, then verbal abuse is more entrapping. Children may have more difficulty recognizing this type of assault and defending against it. In order to survive, children agree with the abusing parent's perception of good and bad. They add to their own suffering by continuing to accept blame, and their ability to distance themselves from this experience is compromised. The same may hold true for sexual abuse. With physical abuse and the resulting physical pain and visible wounds, children (as well as parents and the community) seem to be better able to recognize a limit beyond which the ability to survive is compromised.

KEYWORD: Effects

"Child Maltreatment Among Asian and Pacific Islander Refugees and Immigrants: The San Diego Case." Kenji Ima and Charles F. Holm. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. September 1991; 6: 267-285.

Literature that focuses on cultural aspects of child maltreatment among Asian and Pacific Islander (API) immigrant groups is sparse. This study was an initial inquiry into child maltreatment among Asians and Pacific Islanders. Data were drawn from case files and ethnographic observations. Authors analyzed findings of 158 cases of child maltreatment that were reported to and handled by the Union of Pan Asian Communities in San Diego, California.

The implementation of child abuse laws on cultural newcomers has generated much debate among service providers. The cultural issue of child abuse and neglect has been addressed by showing the "relativity" of child maltreatment. What one culture defines as abusive, another culture might define as appropriate or mandatory.

When compared to the general U.S. population, the Asian and Pacific Islander sample was more likely to be charged with physical abuse and less likely to be charged with sexual abuse, emotional abuse, or neglect. Perhaps reflecting the large number of disrupted households, fathers and mothers were more likely to be charged separately than jointly as compared with other Americans. There were variations in proportions and patterns of abuse among the API groups.

Five possible parameters that may explain patterns of reported child maltreatment in an Asian and Pacific Islander population are identified as: (a) home country traumas; (b) differences in childrearing practices; (c) relative visibility to welfare and other publicly employed professionals; (d) relative continuity of social support systems brought from country of origin; and (e) relative ability to cope with cultural conflicts brought on by being newcomers.

It was noted that, in some cases, API immigrants and refugees are reactive respondents who use the laws for unintended purposes. For example, the conflict between parent and child has been embroiled in controversy: Is the child manipulating the laws to gain advantage over parents who, for the most part, are less fluent in English and more intimidated by American authorities than the child?

The interface between two cultures generates unanticipated consequences that may affect not only the process of reporting cases but also may weaken parenting practices among newcomers.

KEYWORD: Culture

"Child Maltreatment and the Early Childhood Special Educator." Patricia F. Vadasy. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education. 1989; 9(2): 56-72.

This article provides an overview of issues regarding child abuse and neglect that are of greatest interest to early childhood professionals. Incidence, prevalence, types of maltreatment, contributing factors, and consequences are reviewed. The author concludes with prevention strategies and recommendations for early childhood professionals.

KEYWORDS: Incidence, Factors, Effects, Prevention, Intervention

"Child Protection and Society: When Should the State Intervene?" Gary B. Melton and Howard A. Davidson. American Psychologist. February 1987; 42(2): 172-175. The authors take a strong position on directions for child protection. Policymakers need to reconceptualize the effort as promotion of children's well-being, not protection from maltreatment. For children, harm can come from failure to provide the environment and resources necessary for healthy development. Particularly in view of the dubious record of child protective services, legislators need to consider providing positive entitlement for children and to support policies that strengthen families. These actions may be more significant in ensuring children's psychological well- being than even carefully drafting standards for intervention in cases of psychological maltreatment.

KEYWORD: Policy

"College Students from Emotionally Neglectful Homes." Donelda A. Cook. New Directions for Student Services. Summer 1991; 54: 77-90.

Targeted toward student services staff on college campuses, this article defines emotional neglect and then describes it within the context of both childhood circumstances and adult behavior patterns. Building upon several popular press books, pictures of latchkey children, hurried children, and psychologically battered children are painted. Then three additional books, "Toxic Parents," "Prisoners of Childhood," and "Soul Murder," are used to describe the manifestations of childhood neglect upon adult behavior. Recommendations for campus responses to emotionally-neglected students, who often go unrecognized and untreated, are provided.

KEYWORDS: Neglect, College, Effects

"A Conceptual Approach to Child Maltreatment." Raphael Sassower and Michael A. Grodin.
Pediatrician. March 1990; 17(2): 74-78.

The authors' position is that philosophical questions are critical to a broader conceptualization of parenting and childhood maltreatment, whether it is neglect or abuse. This position allows a reconsideration of established institutional models and the reconfiguration of alternative approaches. This paper provides an agenda for future research and experimentation by examining five areas where philosophical discussion may change the conceptual approach of practitioners. Areas discussed are epistemology; certainty; causality; ethics; and aesthetics.

KEYWORDS: Research, Philosophy

"Defining Psychological Maltreatment: The Relationship Between Questions and Answers."
Special Issue: Defining Psychological Maltreatment. Michael S. Wald. Development and Psychopathology. 1991; 3(1): 111-118.

In this article, the author raises doubts as to whether there is such a thing as a research definition of psychological maltreatment. He states that child development research is appropriately concerned with trying to understand conditions that help or hinder a child's successful adaptation to the environment. Research aimed at understanding processes of development can tell us about consequences of particular physical or emotional harms or about parental behaviors. However, researchers cannot determine scientifically whether a given harm or behavior should be labeled maltreatment. This is a value judgment. Garbarino, Guttman, and Seeley (1987) clearly recognize this distinction in their book.

KEYWORD: Definition

"Differential Adult Symptomatology Associated with Three Types of Child Abuse Histories." John Briere and Marsha Runtz. Child Abuse and Neglect. 1990; 14(3): 357-364.

Recent research has studied long-term effects of childhood sexual abuse and, to some extent, childhood physical abuse. Virtually no studies exist that examine the long-term effects of childhood psychological abuse. While low self-esteem is often linked to childhood abuse, results have been mixed. The authors used 277 female undergraduate students randomly selected from introductory psychology classes to examine the relationship among specific types of childhood abuse (i.e., physical, psychological, or sexual) and current psychological symptomatology (i.e., self-esteem, sexual behavior, and aggression/anger). The authors used a new self-esteem measure, written on a clinical-intuitive basis and designed to tap the constructs of abuse-related self-concept problems. Multivariate analyses showed that retrospective reports of parental psychological abuse were uniquely associated with subsequent low self-esteem, sexual abuse with subsequent dysfunctional sexual behavior, and physical abuse with later aggression/anger. Physical and psychological abuse tended to occur together, while sexual abuse was unlikely to have occurred with physical abuse.

KEYWORDS: Long-Term Effects, Self-Esteem, Female

"Does Verbal Abuse Leave Deeper Scars: A Study of Children and Parents." Philip G. Ney.
Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. June 1987; 32(5): 371-378.

This study of the effects of verbal abuse on children tends to support the clinical impression that verbal abuse may have a greater impact for a longer period of time than other forms of abuse. It is hypothesized that verbal abuse may become an increasingly frequent form of controlling and disciplining children because of the increased awareness of physical abuse.

The author states there are few controlled studies on the impact of maltreatment of children on their psychosocial adjustment. There is no consensus about a definition of verbal abuse. It is more difficult to detect and measure than physical abuse. Because all types of abuse may leave emotional wounds and conflicts, the authors state that "verbal abuse" rather than "emotional abuse" is the preferred designation. Only a few studies compare effects of different types of abuse.

Results of the reported study indicate that verbal abuse, compared to other types of abuse, is more likely to change the children's view of the world and themselves. They become more pessimistic and negative as compared with sexually abused children who appear to be more accident-prone, and neglected children who seem to be more active. Children who are verbally abused may have deeper conflicts.

It appears that verbal abuse is more likely to be transmitted from one generation to the next. Parents, in spite of their best intentions, do to their children as their parents did to them. There is evidence that characteristics of the child may, in part, contribute to the parents' abusive behavior. Verbal abuse seems more likely to occur when the children are active and disruptive, and when the parent has unresolved losses and insufficient support.

This study supports the clinical impression that verbal abuse is as harmful or more harmful to children than other types of abuse. The author emphasizes the need to investigate the child's subjective experience of abuse or neglect. He states that while there are increasing social and legal prohibitions to the parents' expressing their irritations and frustrations with their children in violent ways, little can be done to restrain their tendency to destructively blame, humiliate, or criticize their children. In this context, it is quite possible that verbal abuse will become increasingly harmful to children.

KEYWORD: Effects

"Emotional Abuse: Destruction of the Spirit and the Sense of Self." Judy Keith-Oaks. Clearing House; September-October 1990; 64(5): 31-35.

According to the author, emotional abuse receives little attention from the criminal system, despite the fact that it seems to be more prevalent and more harmful than other forms of abuse. Emotional abuse is characterized as negative interactions (both acts of commission and omission) which are repeated frequently. A series of examples serve to further describe such negative interactions. Effects are discussed, especially with regard to the development of healthy emotional boundaries. Feelings of blame or responsibility for the abusive parent's displeasure or unhappiness also may lead to a child's losing a sense of self, an abnormal sense of self-importance, and/or a core feeling of unworthiness or unlovability. Teachers are provided with some characteristics that help to distinguish emotionally abused children. Five ways that parents "corrupt the child's view of himself" also are discussed. The author concludes with a section on prevention and interventions through the schools.

KEYWORDS: Description, Effects, Prevention, Intervention, School

"Emotional Abuse in the Family: The Need for Awareness and Treatment." Ellen C. Tanney and R. Rocco Cottone. Journal of Mental Health Counseling. October 1991; 13(4): 435-448.

In this article, emotional abuse is presented as an insidious problem that is difficult to define objectively. Subcategories of child, adolescent, and spouse abuse are explored. The status of emotional abuse as a legal issue is briefly discussed. The difficulty of attempting to prosecute abusers is discussed. Identification and treatment issues are reviewed. A promising approach for the assessment and treatment of emotional abuse, based on systems theory, is presented.

The authors state that an awareness of emotional abuse and its power to undermine human relations is a first step toward reducing its prevalence. Identification and treatment programs can have potentially beneficial effects for generations. Emotional abuse is a problem that should no longer be viewed as a by-product of physical abuse. Emotional abuse can occur in isolation. Its effects demand professional attention.

KEYWORDS: Treatment, Systems Theory

"Emotional Abuse: Vulnerability and Developmental Delay." Wayne Nesbit. Special Issue:
Perspectives on Exceptionality Developmental Disabilities Bulletin. 1991; 19(2): 66-80.

Ongoing efforts to arrive at a consensus on defining emotional abuse are discussed. The importance of including the child's perception of the event in such a definition is emphasized. Three factors that may increase the child's likelihood of being abused are noted: characteristics of the parent, environmental stressors or crises, and characteristics of the child. This article focuses on the potential for such abuse within the classroom. Children with exceptionalities are more likely to be abused within an educational setting. The following aspects of a school environment may contribute to the potential for emotional maladjustment: teachers who are insensitive to and unsupportive of a child's struggle to learn, inflexible learning environments, and negative feedback from peers. The risk for such abuse is especially great in a mainstreamed situation if adequate preparation is not made. The author presents preliminary information on the Psychological Abuse Scale for Teachers (PAST) which is intended for confidential use and self-administration. Six subcategories of emotional abuse are identified.

KEYWORDS: Definition, School, Teacher, Child Characteristics

"Emotional Abuse: Words Hit as Hard as a Fist." Joann Grayson, Peggy Printz, and Dana Gresham. FLEducator. Summer 1988; 4-11.

The author provides an overview of emotional abuse and discusses incidence, concerns with underreporting, and difficulties among professionals in agreeing which behaviors constitute emotional abuse. The five types of emotional maltreatment (i.e., rejecting, terrorizing, ignoring, isolating, and corrupting), identified by Garbarino and associates, are presented. The author adds several other psychologically harmful methods by which parents attempt to control children. Identification, causes, effects, problems with legal intervention, and treatment approaches also are discussed.

KEYWORDS: Definition, Effects, Identification, Intervention

"A Major Threat to Children's Mental Health: Psychological Maltreatment." Stuart N. Hart and Marla R. Brassard. American Psychologist. February 1987; 42(2): 60-165.

The authors observe that psychological maltreatment seems to be more prevalent and potentially more destructive than other forms of child abuse and neglect. This article reviews the literature. The article presents evidence that psychological maltreatment, per se, is associated with development of the severest forms of behavior disorders and developmental delays in children. Authors conclude that psychological maltreatment is the core issue in child maltreatment and poses a serious mental health threat that should be brought to the forefront of efforts in policy development, research, intervention, and prevention.

KEYWORDS: Research, Policy, Intervention, Prevention, Literature Review

"New Directions for Research on the Psychological Maltreatment of Children." Mindy S. Rosenberg. American Psychologist. February 1987; 42(2): 166-171.

Several research directions are identified for psychologists interested in studying the psychological maltreatment of children and youth. The author states that the field of child maltreatment has been criticized for its isolation from psychological theory and for compartmentalizing the various forms of maltreatment. In an effort to organize research on psychological maltreatment and its relationship to other maltreatment forms, two conceptual perspectives are suggested: ecological and developmental. These perspectives are used to discuss definitional issues, ecological processes and child outcomes, and protective factors and child outcomes. Policy issues are discussed.

KEYWORDS: Definition, Policy

"Not All Bad Developmental Outcomes Are the Result of Child Abuse." Special Issue: Defining Psychological Maltreatment. James Garbarino. Development & Psychopathology. 1991; 3(1): 45-50.

In this must-read journal article, the author states that maltreatment is a social judgment regarding the appropriateness and likely outcome of parental behavior, as well as a community's assessment of minimal standards of care. It is a social judgment that arises as a kind of negotiated settlement between "culture" and "science." Social scientists can offer attempts to articulate the current status of this negotiated settlement and can try to influence its direction. They cannot announce what is and what is not child maltreatment. Child maltreatment exists in an historical context as the result of child advocacy. For example, the same act that is neglect "now and here" could have been well within the normal range of "then and there". The definition is open to historical evolution.

Garbarino defines psychological maltreatment by what a "reasonable person" would judge to be an appropriate response to a child, and his or her age and developmental level. Practically speaking, we cannot specify in concrete detail what this is or would be in advance. One of the essential difficulties of being a parent is the need to modify one's response to a particular child within a particular context.

The author states that the concept of psychological maltreatment represents a significant intellectual challenge. He says that it highlights the dilemma often faced by those seeking to navigate a course between the rock of the real world and the hard place of social science research. "Welcome to that place in the world."

KEYWORDS: Definition, Psychological Maltreatment

"Notes on the Lasting Effects of Early Child Abuse Throughout the Life Cycle." Brandt F. Steele.
Child Abuse and Neglect. 1986; 10(3): 281-291.

After noting the vast array of methodological complications in studying the long term consequences of abuse, two factors which appear to be central to the lasting effects of abuse are discussed. The first factor is the excessive disregard of the child's needs and abilities. Instead, caregiver needs and desires dominate. Secondly, an unreliable pattern of care and/or a high degree of inconsistency in parent-child interactions is common. This inconsistency undermines a child's sense of security and creates difficulty in trusting others. Several common themes result from such treatment. One appears to be a "basic inability to provide good parenting" although the specific types of maltreatment may vary from generation to generation. In addition, several psychological patterns are commonly seen including low self-esteem; a poor sense of identity; an inability to feel or act "grown- up"; vulnerability to crises with a significant lack of coping skills; difficulty feeling pleasure; and a damaged sense of reality resulting in difficulties planning ahead. The conclusion advocates a three- pronged approach: recognition, effective treatment, and prevention.

KEYWORDS: Long-Term Effects, Self-Esteem, Identity, Coping

"Physical and Psychological Maltreatment: Relations Among Types of Maltreatment." Angelika H. Claussen and Patricia M. Crittenden. Child Abuse & Neglect. 1991; 15(1): 5-18.

Early studies of maltreatment rarely differentiate among types of maltreatment and therefore have difficulty determining the origins of negative developmental outcomes. However, there is growing consensus that psychological maltreatment may be particularly critical. But adequately defining and assessing psychological maltreatment continues to be problematic. This study (1) investigated the relationship among types and severities of maltreatment; (2) examined the relation of maltreatment based on definitions utilizing parental behavior as opposed to child outcome; and (3) explored the relation of several demographic and developmental factors to psychological maltreatment.

Data were collected from all families in the target county reported for suspected child abuse or neglect (excluding sexual abuse) with a 2 to 6 year old child (N=175). A "community" sample of volunteer families also participated in the study; 176 normative families and 39 families with a child in mental health treatment. Utilizing a multimethod, multirelationship protocol, the type and severity of parental maltreating behavior, and state agency maltreatment diagnostic codes, and child outcome effects were determined.

Results indicate that physical and psychological maltreatment usually coexisted in families reported to child protective services, while in the community sample, psychological maltreatment often occurred alone. In both samples, severity of physical injury was uncorrelated with severity of other types of maltreatment. However, severity of physical neglect was correlated with both cognitive and social/emotional neglect. Results from the three types of assessment (i.e., parental behaviors, diagnostic codes, and child outcomes), and their levels of severity were highly intercorrelated. For the preschool years, child age and gender were unrelated to type and severity of maltreatment, with the exception of physical injury. Income was a significant factor, however, with children from low- income families at greater risk of physical and cognitive neglect. Policy implications of these findings were discussed.

KEYWORDS: Effects, Measurement, Low-Income, Policy

"The Post-Separation Family and the Emotional Abuse of Children: An Ecological Approach." Geoff Preston. Australian Journal of Sex, Marriage & Family. February 1986; 7(1): 40-49.

This paper discusses some of the problems in the conceptualization of child abuse and their relevance for a theory of emotional abuse. Children in separated families can be subjected to such abuse, especially when the parents are involved in extended litigation over the children. Occasionally some of the problems are sufficiently severe and long lasting to affect the children's personality development.

The author provides a brief report on a survey of 98 families who attended the Family Court for counseling. A majority of them were composed of emotionally abusive situations for the children. The author suggests an ecological model of emotional abuse.

In both child abuse and family breakdown, the long-term psychological effects on children are determined more by the structure of the family after the stress than by the specific harmful event itself. Courts and welfare agencies must provide for the child's emotional and developmental needs.

KEYWORDS: Theory, Human Ecology, Long-Term Effects

"Psychological Abuse in the Home and in the School." Wayne C. Nesbit and Leslie D. Karagianis.
Canadian Journal of Education. 1987; 12(1): 177-183.

The authors reviewed the long standing problems of defining emotional child abuse, and provided tentative definitions emphasizing the deprivation of a "developmentally requisite nurturing relationship." Noting that family stresses can be child-produced, parent-produced, and/or social- situational, several interventions for families are suggested. Additionally, teachers are advised to be involved in preventing emotional abuse by identifying possible victims and resolving not to be verbally abusive themselves. Lastly, schools are urged to help in prevention by teaching children how to care for others.

KEYWORDS: Definition, Intervention, School

"Psychosocial and Background Factors in Emotional Abuse of Children." Anne Hickox and James R. G. Furnell. Child: Care, Health and Development. 1989; 15(4): 227-240.

Families who were legally identified as being emotionally abusive were compared with families who were not categorized as such to determine if there were any distinguishing characteristics. Although definitional issues plague the identification, study, and treatment of emotionally abusive parents and their children, Scottish clinicians apparently make referrals to child protective services when one of the following situations exists: a parent is mentally unstable or ill; an unsatisfactory parent-child relationship exists; unsatisfactory childrearing methods are used; or when the parent's lifestyle is judged unsatisfactory.

The "experimental" group (N=7) was matched with a group of parents who was not legally identified as emotionally abusive. However, the children of this control group attended a social servicesaffiliated day nursery because the family had been identified as needing support with child care and management.

The authors used structured interviews, which were then independently assessed by two clinicians, to note the presence or absence of 51 psychosocial and background factors. While there was no significant difference on the measure of parental psychiatric disturbance between the two groups, the measure of young children's significant behavior disturbances did result in significantly higher scores for the emotionally abused children. Also, caregivers who were legally identified as emotionally abusive had a significantly higher number of psychosocial and background risk factors. These factors were characterized as poor coping skills, difficulty in building relationships, and poor child management techniques. Although the authors note that the decision to make a referral on some of these families and not others may appear arbitrary, they suggest the results of this study do show that differences exist. Three case histories are included to illustrate these differences.

KEYWORDS: Identification, Risk Factors, Case Studies

"Psychological Maltreatment of Children: An Emerging Focus for Injury and Concern." Ellen Greenberg Garrison. American Psychologist. February 1987; 24(2): 157-159.

Many psychologists contend that psychological maltreatment is the core issue in child abuse and neglect. This article, in the "Psychology in the Public Forum" section of this journal, is designed to elucidate the concept of psychological maltreatment and to stimulate further interest in efforts to examine the prevention, treatment, research, and policy aspects of the phenomenon.

The author attempts to generate interest and concern among researchers and practitioners for the emerging issue of psychological maltreatment. The field needs research and clinical information to guide decisionmaking relative to policy. The needs include the areas ranging from the development of operational definitions to the design of effective prevention and intervention strategies that benefit children, their families, and the larger society.

KEYWORDS: Prevention, Treatment, Research, Policy

"Psychological Maltreatment: Can an Integration of Research, Policy, and Intervention Efforts Be Achieved?" Sheree L. Toth. Development & Psychopathology. 1991; 3(1): 103-109.

The author takes issue with the recommendations by McGee and Wolfe (1991) in their article entitled, "Psychological Maltreatment: Toward An Operational Definition", which appears in this bibliography. She suggests that using a definition designed specifically for research purposes, restricting the definition to nonphysical acts, and excluding social conditions separate the researchers from the practitioners and social policymakers. This separation confuses policy formation and intervention efforts. The author advocates a single definition suitable for research, treatment, intervention, and policy. She believes intervention should go beyond modifying the child's home environment to provide treatment for the psychological consequences, in order to prevent developmental failure and psychopathology.

KEYWORDS: Definition, Intervention

"Psychological Maltreatment: Progress Achieved." Stuart N. Hart and Marla R. Brassard.
Development & Psychopathology. 1991; 3(1): 61-70.

The authors review recent research and discuss psychological maltreatment, including physical and nonphysical parental acts and outcomes. Implications for developmental psychopathology are provided.

The article states it is time to apply our understanding of child development and our growing knowledge of environmental interactions to gain an understanding of what constitutes a minimally adequate developmental context for children as they grow at home or in schools, and daycare centers.

KEYWORDS: General, Overview

"Psychological Maltreatment: Toward An Operational Definition." Robin A. McGee and David A. Wolfe. Development & Psychopathology. 1991; 3(1): 3-18.

Despite consensus on the existence and significance of psychological maltreatment, there is considerable disagreement on how it should be defined. The authors review current definitions, propose a theoretical clarification of the concept, and describe its relevance for the field of developmental psychopathology.

McGee and Wolfe conceptualize psychological maltreatment as the interaction between parental maltreating behaviors and special vulnerabilities of children, particularly their developmental level. The authors restrict the definition of psychological maltreatment to verbal and nonverbal parent communication. Parental acts that involve physical or sexual contact are excluded.

KEYWORD: Definition

"Psychological Maltreatment: The Unifying Construct in Child Abuse and Neglect." Marla R. Brassard and Mark S. Gelardo. School Psychology Review. 1987; 16(2): 127-136.

Psychological maltreatment is receiving increased attention as a prevalent and destructive form of child abuse and neglect that constitutes a serious mental health problem in children. This article presents a reconceptualization of psychological maltreatment as the destructive force in child abuse and neglect. It reviews the empirical evidence on the relationship between maltreatment, school readiness, and school performance. The authors outline an agenda for intervention efforts on the part of school psychologists.

Schools may be the societal structures with the greatest potential for combatting the psychological maltreatment of children. Psychologists in the schools are the professionals who should be expected to provide leadership in realizing this potential.

KEYWORD: Definition

Selected Resources For Researchers and Educators: Dissertation Abstracts

"Long-Range Planning Issues Essential to a National Program for the Primary Prevention of Childhood Psychological Maltreatment: A Delphi Study." Paul Arthur Turgi. Dissertation Abstracts International. 1989; Vol 50/11-A, p. 3741 (291 pages).

Using a Delphi futures methodology, the author collected a prioritized list of consensual opinions from up to 50 experts as to planning issues for the primary prevention of childhood psychological maltreatment. Information as to degree of implementation difficulty and time is included.

KEYWORDS: Prevention, Policy

"Psychological Maltreatment of Children: An Integrative Developmental Conceptualization." Donna Marie Barnes. Dissertation Abstracts International. 1990; Vol 51/05-B, p. 2608 (201 pages).

The author defines psychological maltreatment as "a recurring pattern of maladaptive parent or caretaker behavior which impedes the child's successful resolution of developmental tasks." Forms of such maltreatment at each of four stages of childhood are examined: infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Potential effects, clinical intervention, and prevention efforts are covered.

KEYWORDS: Definition, Effects, Intervention, Prevention

"Psychological Maltreatment: Family Interactions and Relationships, Self-Concept, and the Classroom." Katherine Glass Kirkpatrick. Dissertation Abstracts International. 1989; Vol 50/11-A, p. 3475 (106 pages).

This study involves the identification of and intervention with psychologically abused children in an elementary school setting. The author used Bene and Anthony's 1985 "Family Relations Tests" on 196 K-3 students. She identified 34 children (18 percent) as having a psychologically abusive relationship with a parent figure. These 34 children were then randomly assigned to a stratified control, experimental, or placebo group. The experimental group received instruction using self- concept materials in an emotionally supportive environment. The placebo group received nonemotional science lessons. Comparisons of pre- and post-measures of self-concept, grades, negative child/child interactions, and negative classroom behaviors showed that there were significantly different gains in self-concept scores between the experimental and control groups and between the placebo and control groups. There was also a significantly different gain in grades between the placebo and experimental groups.

KEYWORDS: Identification, Intervention, Self-Concept, School

"Using General Semantics to Heal the "Invisible Scars" from Verbal-Emotional Abuse (Psychological Maltreatment)." Maxine S. Theodoulou. Dissertation Abstracts International. 1990; Vol 51/04-B, p. 1738.

The author asserts that victims of emotional abuse have been hurt by words. Consequently, they need to learn how to evaluate words differently in order to overcome the resultant negative selfimage. A system developed by Alfred Korzybski called "general semantics" was used. KEYWORDS: Intervention, Effects

Selected Resources For Consumers

"A Better Way to Talk to Your Kids." Antonia Van Der Meer. Reader's Digest. May 1990; 136(4): 7- 13.

The author states that raising children can test any parent's patience. However, it is important for parents to recognize and resist hurtful words that can damage a child's self esteem. She lists ten of the most hurtful statements and suggests ways parents can avoid using them.

KEYWORDS: Communication, Parent-Child Relations

"Emotional Child Abuse: Discipline's Fine Line." Jean Seligman. In Family Section, Newsweek.
October 3, 1988; 112: 48, 50.

The article provides an overview of emotional child abuse and offers specific ideas for parents to consider as they carry out discipline in the family. The author states that emotional abuse is not always rooted in poverty. Parents whose lives are full of stressors, such as unemployment, alcohol or drug abuse, and social isolation, are more likely than others to mistreat their children. Many parents are unfamiliar with positive methods of discipline.

Carrying out discipline effectively is a balancing act. Parents need to treat children with love and respect, but they also need to make clear that they have the final say in setting limits. Parents can be quite strict without crushing the child's spirit. The article suggests that the goal of discipline is to have children internalize limits and boundaries set by parents. Consistency is important. A great deal of child development focuses on kids developing maps of what to expect from the world.

KEYWORDS: Definition, Discipline

"Emotional Child Abuse: The Invisible Plague." Susan Jacoby. Reader's Digest. February, 1985; 126: 86-90.

Although there are no statistics on emotional child abuse, the problem is believed to be widespread. Research by Egeland and associates is cited, which suggests that the effects of emotional abuse may be more severe than those of physical abuse, because they result in greater declines in mental and psychological development. Emotional abuse is characterized as the systematic destruction of a child's self esteem. Emotional abusers are described as driven by their own psychological problems (such as unmet childhood needs for nurturance) rather than their child's misbehavior.

Abusive parents may use one or more of the "four D's" of emotional abuse, according to Dr. Jay Lefer, a New York psychiatrist interviewed by the author. "Deprivation" and "distancing" characterize the abusive parent who is psychologically inaccessible to the child. Lack of expressions of affection and interest result in a failure to form a secure attachment. "Depreciation" is the result of verbal statements that discount a child's achievements or overemphasize signs of misbehavior. Perfectionist parents who have unrealistic expectations are one of the most common examples of emotional abuse. "Domination" occurs when a parent tries to take control of a child's every action and utilizes extreme threats or other acts of cruelty to do so.

Family therapy is recommended when parents, who were emotionally abused as children, abuse their own children. All members of the family should be involved in therapy because family interaction patterns will need to be altered. Bystanders (friends and family) who fail to confront abusive parents are abetting the emotional abuse and should intervene. Although the challenge from another adult may not cause a parent to treat the child more humanely, at least the child will learn that not every adult agrees with such treatment. The concern of another adult may help to sustain the child's sense of being valued.

KEYWORDS: Definition, Effects, Intervention

"Emotional Maltreatment of Children." James Garbarino and Anne C. Garbarino. Chicago, IL: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. 1992.

This key publication by leading authorities states the problem of maltreatment and discusses forms of it. Emotional maltreatment is defined, and a section on attacking the problem is included.

A practical section provides advice for parents, advice for children, and advice to survivors. They convey the idea that people can break the pattern and stop the cycle. The authors suggest that readers choose friends carefully. References and materials are suggested.

KEYWORDS: Perpetrators, Victims, Solutions

"Sharp Words Hurt More Than A Slap in the Face." Jean Guarino. U.S. Catholic. September 1991; 14(6): 14.

"Sticks and stones may break my bones but words will never hurt me." That reassuring children's rhyme has been used for generations by parents to comfort their children who were hurt by the jibes and taunts of their playmates. Today, we know that this saying is not true. Words can hurt, and the damage can cripple a child for life.

When abusive words are repeated often enough, children's sense of self-esteem and worth plummet. They begin to agree with their parents' assessment of them. Instead of trying to exceed their parents' low expectations, children frequently settle for playing the role of losers.

The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act passed by Congress in 1974 defines child abuse and neglect as: "The physical or mental injury, sexual abuse or exploitation, negligent treatment or maltreatment of a child under the age of 18 by a person who is responsible for the child's welfare under circumstances which indicate that the child's health or welfare is harmed or threatened thereby."

The article presents two categories of abuse: acts of commission, and acts of omission or neglect. It describes how parents can stop patterns of behavior that lead to emotional maltreatment. The author states that a child deprived of a loving, supportive environment will fail to thrive. And conversely, children raised by parents with loving and supportive attitudes will become caring, self- sufficient adults capable, in turn, of instilling these attitudes in their own children.

KEYWORDS: Definition, Commission, Omission, Child Abuse Prevention Act

"Spider-Man Battles Emotional Abuse." Children Today. May-June, 1988; 17: 2.

The National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse (NCPCA) developed the second edition of The Amazing Spider-Man comic book. This edition explains what children should do about emotional abuse. It also helps parents discuss the topic with their children, and suggests when to seek treatment.

KEYWORDS: Prevention, Children's Awareness

"Stunting Emotions: Turmoil on the Home Front Can Delay a Child's Growth." Linda Troiano. American Health. November, 1990; 9: 83.

Children who are deprived of love, exposed to abuse, babied excessively, or forced to assume adult roles for emotionally incapacitated parents may experience stunted physical growth and/or poor psychological development. This phenomenon is called "psychological growth delay" (PGD). The mechanism by which this occurs is still unclear. The chemical messages in the brain which normally trigger the release of growth hormones in the pituitary gland may be blocked in some way by emotional trauma. When the child is placed in a healthier environment, hormone production increases, resulting in catch-up growth, if intervention is early. After age eight or nine, such catch- up growth is more difficult. While extreme cases of PGD are rare, it is suggested that up to 50 percent of the children who experience subtly inhibited growth, also, may be experiencing emotional problems.

KEYWORD: Effects

"The Teacher Called Me Stupid, Mommy! Special Report on Emotional Abuse in Our Schools." Redbook. Marilyn Holm Christensen. October 1989; 173(6): 144.

Emotional maltreatment of students by school personnel is a widespread problem and exists at all levels in the educational system. This is according to many child abuse experts, teachers, and school administrators. The author states that one authority estimates that between one and two percent of the teachers in this country are emotional abusers. The estimate may seem low, but given the teacher-child ratio, just one teacher can do a great deal of harm.

One concern is that emotional maltreatment is not recognized as such by many principals and teachers. The author says that one authority states that the teacher who consistently erodes a child's feelings of self-worth will probably never be charged with child abuse, and may even receive the support of school officials.

The author discusses how to distinguish between normal discipline and abuse, and defines common forms of emotional abuse, including terrorizing; inconsistency; labelling; ridicule; neglect; and scapegoating. The article discusses the profile of an abusive teacher, suggests warning signs of trouble, and offers specific suggestions for what parents can do.

The article states that our schools can be made more humane by becoming a place where children learn to feel good about themselves in addition to learning to read, write and do arithmetic. KEYWORDS: School, Teacher, Discipline

Sources of Additional Information

Many of these associations and organizations have state affiliations or local chapters. We suggest you contact them first.

Associations and Organizations

ABA Center on Children and the Law (ABACCL)
1800 M St. NW
Washington, DC 20036
(202) 331-2250

Adam Walsh Child Resource Center (AWCRC)
3111 S. Dixie Hwy., Suite 244
West Palm Beach, FL 33405
(407) 833-9080

American Association for Protecting Children (AAPC)
c/o American Humane Assn.
63 Inverness Drive E.
Englewood, CO 80112
(303) 792-9900

The Center for the Prevention of Sexual & Domestic
Violence (CPSDV)
1914 N. 34th St., Suite 105
Seattle, WA 98103
(206) 634-1903

Child Abuse Institute of Research (CAIR)
P.O. Box 1217
Cincinnati, OH 45201
(606) 441-7409 Child Abuse Listening and Mediation (CALM)
PO Box 90754
Santa Barbara, CA 93190-0754
(805) 965-2376

Child Welfare Institute (CWI)
1365 Peachtree St. NE, Suite 700
Atlanta, GA 30309
(404) 876-1934

Childhelp U.S.A., Inc. (CUI)
6463 Independence Ave.
Woodland Hills, CA 91370
(818) 347-7280

Child's Rights of America (CRA)
12551 Indian Rocks Rd., Suite 9
Largo, FL 34644
(813) 593-0090

Children's Defense Fund (CDF)
122 C. St. NW
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 628-8787

Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information
(CCANI)
PO Box 1182
Washington, DC 20013
(703) 821-2086

Defense for Children International - United States
of America (DCI-USA)
210 Forsyth St.
New York, NY 10002
(212) 353-0951

End Violence Against the Next Generation
977 Keeler Ave.
Berkeley, CA 94708-1498
(415) 527-0454

Institute for the Community As Extended Family
(ICEF)
PO Box 952
San Jose, CA 95108
(408) 453-7616

International Child Resource Institute (ICRI)
1810 Hopkins
Berkeley, CA 94707
(415) 644-1000

International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse
and Neglect (ISPCAN)
1205 Oneida St.
Denver, CO 80220
(303) 321-3963

National Association of Social Workers (NASW)
750 First St., N.E.
Washington, DC 20002
(800) 638-8799

National Center for Missing and Exploited Children
(NCMEC)
2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 500
Arlington, VA 22201
(703) 235-3900

National Center for Prosecution of Child Abuse
(NCPCA)
1033 N. Fairfax St., Suite 200
Alexandria, VA 22314
(703) 739-0312
(800) 843-5678

National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (NCADV)
P.O. Box 15127
Washington, DC 20003
(202) 293-8860

National Coalition to Abolish Corporal Punishment
(NCACP)
155 W. Main St., #100-B
Columbus, OH 43215
(614) 221-8829 National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse
(NCPCA)
332 S. Michigan Ave., Suite 1600
Chicago, IL 60604
(312) 663-3520

National Committee for the Rights of the Child
(NCRC)
125 Cathedral St.
Annapolis, MD 21401
(410) 269-7816
(800) 422-3055

National Council on Child Abuse and Family Violence
(NCCAFV)
1155 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Suite 400
Washington, DC 20036
(202) 429-6695

National Court Appointed Special Advocates
Association (NCASAA)
2722 Eastlake Ave. E., Suite 220
Seattle, WA 98102
(206) 328-8588

National Exchange Club Foundation for the Prevention
of Child Abuse (NECF)
3050 Central Ave.
Toledo, OH 43606
(419) 535-3232

Parents Anonymous (PA)
6733 S. Sepulveda, Suite 270
Los Angeles, CA 90045
(213) 410-9732 Federal Government Agencies

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Extension Service
14th & Independence Ave., S.W.
Washington, DC 20250
(202) 720-0987

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Office of Human Development Services
Administration for Children, Youth and Families
Children's Bureau
National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN)
330 C. St., S.W.
Washington, DC 20201
(202) 245-0586

Research Centers

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Office of Human Development Services
Administration for Children, Youth and Families
Children's Bureau
National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN)
330 C. St., S.W.
Washington, DC 20201
(202) 245-2859

University of Colorado
C. Henry Kempe National Center for the Prevention
and Treatment of Child
Abuse and Neglect
1205 Oneida St.
Denver, CO 80220
(303) 245-2859

Author Index

Barnes, Donna Marie 20
Brassard, Marla R. 13, 18, 19
Briere, John 10
Christensen, Marilyn Holm 25
Claussen, Angelika H. 15
Cook, Donelda A. 9
Cottone, R. Rocco 12
Covitz, Joel 3
Crittenden, Patricia M. 15
Davidson, Howard A. 9
Elliott, Lynda D. 3
Frude, Neil 6
Furnell, James R.G. 17
Garbarino, Anne C. 23
Garbarino, James 4, 14, 23
Garrison, Ellen Greenberg 18
Gelardo, Mark S. 19
Grayson, Joann 13
Gresham, Dana 13
Grodin, Michael A. 9
Guarino, Jean 23
Guttman, Edna 4
Hart, Stuart N. 13, 18
Hickox, Anne 17
Holm, Charles F. 7
Holm, Marilyn Franzen 5
Ima, Kenji 7
Jacoby, Susan 22
Kairys, Steven W. 6
Karagianis, Leslie D. 16
Keith-Oaks, Judith 11
Kirkpatrick, Katherine Glass 20
McCarthy, James B. 6
McGee, Robin A. 19
McPhee, John 7
Melton, Gary B. 9
Moore, Christine 7
Ney, Philip G. 7, 11
Nesbit, Wayne 12, 16
Preston, Geoff 16
Printz, Peggy 13
Richardson, Curtis M. 6
Rosenberg, Mindy S. 14
Runtz, Marsha 10
Salter, Anna C. 6
Sassower, Raphael 9
Seeley, Janis Wilson 4
Seligman, Jean 22
Steele, Brandt F. 15
Strauss, Murray A. 2
Tanner, Vicki L. 3
Tanney, Ellen C. 12
Theodoulou, Maxine S. 21
Toth, Sheree L. 18
Troiano, Linda 24
Trought, Penelope 7
Turgi, Paul Arthur 20
Vadasy, Patricia F. 8
Van Der Meer, Antonia 22
Wald, Michael S. 10
Wiehe, Vernon R. 5
Wolfe, David A. 4, 19

Keyword Index

Assessment 4
Case studies 4, 17
Causes 3
Child Abuse Prevention Act 24
Child characteristics 13
Children's awareness 24
College 9
Commission 24
Communication 22
Coping 15
Culture 8
Definition 5, 6, 10, 13, 13, 14, 14,17, 18, 19, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24

Description 12
Discipline 22, 25
Domestic violence 3
Effects 3, 3, 6, 7, 9, 9, 10, 11, 12,13, 15, 16, 20, 21, 23, 25

Factors 9
Female 10
General 19
Human ecology 16
Identification 4, 13, 17, 21
Identity 15
Impacts 3
Incidence 9
Intervention 4, 6, 6, 9, 12, 13, 13,17, 18, 20, 21, 21, 23

Literature review 13
Long-term effects 10, 15, 16
Low-income 16
Measurement 16
Neglect 9
Omission 24
Overview 19
Parent-child relations 22
Perpetrators 23
Philosophy 10
Policy 4, 9, 13, 14, 16, 18, 20
Preschool 6
Prevention 4, 9, 12, 13, 18, 20, 20,24 Psychology 6
Psychological maltreatment 14
Religion 3
Research 10, 13, 18
Risk factors 6, 17
School 12, 13, 17, 21, 25
Self-concept 21
Self-esteem 10, 15
Sibling abuse 5
Solutions 23
Systems theory 12
Teacher 13, 25
Theory 16
Treatment 12, 18
Victims 23
Witnessing violence 3

Reviewers

Gloria Goldfaden, M.S., Executive Director
People Against Child Abuse (P.A.C.A., Maryland Chapter of the National Committee for Prevention of
Child Abuse)
125 Cathedral Street
Annapolis, MD

Donald F. Schwarz, MD, MPH
Assistant Professor of Pediatrics
University of Pennsylvania
at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia

Department of General Pediatrics
Philadelphia, PA.

KEYWORDS: CHILD EMOTIONAL ABUSE

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